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The death of King Herod the Great

The article analyzes the dating of the death of Herod the Great, traditionally placed around 1 BC, and its modern reassessment to 4 BC by Schürer on the basis of Josephus. This reassessment creates tensions with the Scriptures, notably regarding the chronology of Jesus’ birth and its links with biblical prophecies. A death in 1 BC is judged historically plausible and more coherent.

35 min Herod chronology Jesus historiography Flavius Josephus 25 verses 4 books

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Introduction

This study is one of the elements of our research devoted to establishing a chronology of the life of Jesus the Messiah on the basis of Daniel’s prophecy of the seventy weeks (Daniel 9.24-27). It should be understood in connection with the other studies in this series, each of which contributes complementary historical, calendrical and biblical data. Together, these works form a coherent analysis aimed at reconstructing, as precisely as possible, the sequence of events reported in the Gospels.

The historian generally works from established facts in order to draw conclusions. In this study, the approach is different: the biblical Scriptures provide a chronological framework that we seek to compare with the available historical data.

It should be recalled that before the end of the nineteenth century, the Christian tradition often placed the birth of Jesus the Messiah between 3 and 1 BC. Consequently, the death of King Herod was naturally placed after that period, generally around 1 BC. This early dating was not the result of a detailed critical analysis of the writings of Flavius Josephus, but neither was it seriously called into question.

The situation changed with the work of the German theologian Emil Schürer, who published in 1890 his work History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ. By reinterpreting the information handed down by Flavius Josephus, Schürer proposed to fix Herod’s death in 4 BC. This chronological reconstruction, gradually adopted by a large part of the academic world, rests mainly on the identification of a lunar eclipse mentioned by Josephus.

However, it is important to stress that this dating is not an absolutely demonstrated historical fact. It rests on an interpretation of ancient sources, which at times remain imprecise and open to different readings. Several scholars have therefore proposed another hypothesis placing Herod’s death in 1 BC, notably because of another lunar eclipse that may correspond to Josephus’ account.

Several questions therefore legitimately arise:

  • Why do most historians today accept the year 4 BC?
  • Does this date rest on historical certainty or on a hypothetical reconstruction?
  • Is an alternative dating of 1 BC still historically conceivable?
  • Why does this debate have particular importance in the study of the chronology of the life of Jesus the Messiah?

These questions are essential, because the date accepted for Herod’s death directly influences the chronology of Jesus’ birth, then that of his public ministry, and consequently the interpretation of several major biblical texts, notably the indications of Luke (Luke 3.1-23) and the prophecy of Daniel’s seventy weeks (Daniel 9.24-27).

The aim of this study is therefore not to rewrite history or to impose a conclusion artificially, but to examine carefully the various hypotheses proposed by historians, in order to determine whether a death of Herod in 1 BC can be considered historically plausible and consistent with the biblical data.

I. Schürer’s hypothesis: a nineteenth-century reconstruction

In his work History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, published in 1890, Emil Schürer proposes dating the death of King Herod to 4 BC. This theory, which gradually became the majority view in the academic world, rests mainly on the interpretation of several indications provided by the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus in his works Jewish Antiquities and The Jewish War.

According to this reconstruction, three main elements lead to accepting the year 4 BC:

  • Herod would have reigned thirty-seven years after his appointment by the Roman Senate;
  • he would also have reigned thirty-four years after the death of Antigonus;
  • a lunar eclipse would have occurred shortly before his death.

By combining this information with known Roman history, several historians identify this eclipse with the one of 13 March 4 BC, which would place Herod’s death a few weeks later, before the feast of Passover.

This reconstruction has a certain internal coherence and explains why it was widely adopted. However, it is important to note that Flavius Josephus never gives an absolute date for Herod’s death. Modern conclusions therefore rest on a series of chronological deductions and on the choice of one lunar eclipse among several possible ones.

We are thus more in the realm of historical reconstruction than of absolute certainty. Ancient texts frequently use methods of reckoning different from ours, notably for years of reign, which may include coregencies, incomplete years, or counting methods that vary according to regions and authors.

Moreover, certain details of Josephus’ account raise difficulties when applied to the eclipse of 13 March 4 BC. Indeed, the historian reports between this eclipse and the feast of Passover a considerable succession of events: worsening of Herod’s illness, execution of several opponents, political movements, the king’s death, organization of grand funerals, a period of mourning, and the celebration of Passover. Several scholars consider that the relatively short interval between the eclipse of March 4 BC and Passover leaves little time for the full unfolding of these events.

These remarks do not necessarily invalidate the hypothesis of 4 BC, but they show that it remains a debatable interpretation of the available sources. It therefore becomes legitimate to examine whether another dating, notably that of 1 BC, could also correspond to the information handed down by Flavius Josephus and to the biblical data.

II. The consequences of a death in 4 BC

The question of the date of King Herod’s death is not a mere chronological detail of no importance. Indeed, this dating directly influences the interpretation of the accounts of the birth of Jesus the Messiah as well as the whole chronology of his public ministry.

The Gospels of Matthew and Luke clearly state that Jesus was born during the lifetime of Herod the Great (Matthew 2.1; Luke 1.5). This point is not ambiguous in the biblical texts.

Now, if Herod died in 4 BC, then Jesus’ birth must necessarily be placed before that date, generally around 5 or 6 BC. This conclusion is widely accepted today by scholars who adopt Schürer’s chronology.

However, this reconstruction raises several difficulties when confronted with the other chronological indications in the Gospels.

Luke indeed states that Jesus “was about thirty years old when he began his ministry” (Luke 3.23). The same author places the beginning of John the Baptist’s ministry in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar” (Luke 3.1), generally understood as falling between AD 26 and 27 when coregency is taken into account.

If we then add the probable length of Jesus’ public ministry, often estimated at about three years on account of the various Passovers mentioned in the Gospel of John (John 2.13; John 6.4; John 11.55), we naturally arrive at a crucifixion around AD 33.

In this framework, a birth in 5 or 6 BC leads to an age of Jesus noticeably greater than “about thirty years” at his baptism. Of course, the expression used by Luke remains approximate and is not an absolute mathematical datum. Nevertheless, the gap becomes large enough to raise legitimate questions.

This difficulty appears even more clearly when these data are related to the prophecy of Daniel’s seventy weeks (Daniel 9.24-27). According to the chronological interpretation we develop in this study, this prophecy leads to the Messiah’s death in the spring of AD 33, after a ministry of about three and a half years.

Thus, the traditional dating of Herod’s death to 4 BC creates several chronological tensions:

  • with Luke’s indications concerning Jesus’ age;
  • with the probable length of his ministry;
  • and with the overall coherence of Daniel’s prophetic chronology.

These difficulties do not automatically imply that the year 4 BC is impossible. They show, however, that this hypothesis is not free of problems and that it remains legitimate to examine whether another dating, notably that of 1 BC, might offer a better harmonization of the historical and biblical data.

III. The data of Flavius Josephus: between history and interpretation

Nearly the whole debate concerning the date of Herod’s death rests on the writings of the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (non-biblical). He is our main historical source on the end of the reign of Herod the Great and on the political events of that period.

However, it is important to recall that Josephus never gives an explicit date for Herod’s death according to our modern calendar. The historian provides only a series of chronological indications that scholars then try to reconstruct.

Among this information, Josephus notably states:

  • that Herod died thirty-seven years after being proclaimed king by the ;
  • that he died thirty-four years after the capture of Jerusalem and the disappearance of Antigonus;
  • that a lunar eclipse occurred shortly before his death;
  • that a religious fast was then being observed;
  • that his death was followed by a significant period of mourning before the feast of Passover.

These elements are valuable benchmarks, but they all require interpretation.

Indeed, several questions remain open:

  • From what exact moment does Josephus begin to count Herod’s reign?
  • Are the years of reign counted according to the Jewish, Roman or inclusive method?
  • Should the death of Antigonus be placed precisely in 37 BC or slightly later?
  • Which lunar eclipse should be chosen?
  • Did certain periods of coregency exist between Herod and his sons?

These difficulties show that Herod’s chronology does not rest on a simple and incontestable datum, but on a complex historical reconstruction.

The identification of the lunar eclipse is notably one of the most debated points. Most scholars accept the partial eclipse of 13 March 4 BC, because it immediately precedes Passover that year. However, other scholars consider that the total eclipse of 10 January 1 BC corresponds better to Josephus’ account.

Indeed, between the eclipse and the feast of Passover, Josephus describes a great number of events:

  • worsening of Herod’s illness;
  • the king’s journey to the hot springs of Callirhoe;
  • return to Jericho;
  • execution of Antipater;
  • organization of the royal funeral;
  • official period of mourning;
  • political unrest;
  • then the celebration of Passover.

The relatively short interval between the eclipse of 13 March 4 BC and Passover leaves little time for all these events. By contrast, the eclipse of 10 January 1 BC offers a much longer interval, which some scholars judge more compatible with Josephus’ account.

It should also be recalled that ancient chronologies frequently contain imprecisions of several months, even several years. Ancient historians did not work with modern chronological standards, and dating systems varied considerably according to regions and authors.

Under these conditions, it seems excessive to present the date of 4 BC as an absolute certainty. This reconstruction remains plausible, but it is still based on a particular interpretation of the available data. Hence, the hypothesis of Herod’s death in 1 BC cannot be dismissed out of hand and deserves serious examination.

IV. The limits of the 4 BC hypothesis

The dating of Herod’s death to 4 BC remains the majority view in the academic world today. However, several elements show that this reconstruction rests on less solid foundations than it sometimes appears.

The eclipse of 13 March 4 BC

The main argument for the year 4 BC rests on identifying the lunar eclipse mentioned by Flavius Josephus with that of 13 March 4 BC. Yet this eclipse presents several difficulties.

First, it was a relatively minor partial eclipse. Some scholars consider that such a limited phenomenon hardly corresponds to the importance Josephus seems to give it in his account.

Next, this eclipse occurs only a few weeks before the feast of Passover. The available time then appears particularly short to allow for all the events reported by the historian:

  • the worsening of Herod’s illness;
  • his journey to the springs of Callirhoe;
  • his return to Jericho;
  • the execution of Antipater;
  • the funeral preparations;
  • the official period of mourning;
  • the political unrest;
  • then the arrival of Passover.

Several specialists therefore consider that this chronology appears very compressed if the eclipse of March 4 BC is accepted.

The question of the death of Antigonus

The traditional reconstruction generally assumes that Antigonus died in 37 BC. However, this date is not explicitly given by Josephus.

Now, the siege of Jerusalem lasted several months, and the capture of Antigonus does not necessarily mean his immediate execution. Ancient sources indicate that Antigonus was sent to Antioch before finally being put to death by Roman decision.

Some scholars therefore consider that his death may have taken place later, possibly in 36 BC. On this hypothesis, the “thirty-four years” mentioned by Josephus would naturally lead toward the years 2 or 1 BC rather than toward 4 BC.

Problems related to the reigns of Herod’s sons

Another argument often invoked concerns the ten years of Archelaus’ reign before his deposition in AD 6. This calculation seems to lead directly to a death of Herod in 4 BC.

However, this conclusion assumes that Archelaus’ reign begins exactly at his father’s death and that no coregency existed beforehand. Yet Eastern and Roman political practices frequently allowed for periods of transition or coregency between an aging sovereign and his heirs.

Moreover, ancient systems for reckoning years of reign sometimes used inclusive or rounded methods, making the counts less precise than ours.

A historiographical reconstruction, not an absolute certainty

All these remarks are not intended to demonstrate that the year 4 BC would be impossible. This hypothesis remains historically defensible and continues to be adopted by many scholars.

However, it seems important to acknowledge that it rests on several interpretive choices:

  • the choice of the eclipse of 13 March 4 BC;
  • a certain way of counting years of reign;
  • a precise dating of the death of Antigonus;
  • and the absence of significant coregency.

We are therefore not facing an incontestable historical certainty, but a plausible chronological reconstruction among others. Under these conditions, the alternative hypothesis of Herod’s death in 1 BC deserves to be examined seriously rather than dismissed as impossible.

V. The hypothesis of Herod’s death in 1 BC

Faced with the difficulties raised by the traditional chronology, several scholars have proposed another reconstruction placing Herod’s death in 1 BC. This hypothesis, although a minority view, also rests on serious historical, astronomical and chronological arguments.

The eclipse of 10 January 1 BC

One of the main arguments in favor of this dating concerns the lunar eclipse of 10 January 1 BC. Unlike that of 13 March 4 BC, it was a total eclipse particularly visible in the region.

Above all, this eclipse precedes the feast of Passover by about three months. This interval appears far more compatible with the succession of events reported by Flavius Josephus:

  • worsening of Herod’s state of health;
  • journey to Callirhoe;
  • return to Jericho;
  • execution of Antipater;
  • organization of the royal funeral;
  • period of mourning;
  • unrest linked to the succession;
  • then the celebration of Passover.

Several historians thus consider that this chronology fits more naturally with the eclipse of January 1 BC than with that of March 4 BC.

Better consistency with the Gospels

This hypothesis also makes it easier to harmonize the information provided by Matthew and Luke.

Matthew states that Jesus was born “in the days of King Herod” (Matthew 2.1) and then reports the visit of the Magi and the massacre of the children of Bethlehem (Matthew 2.16). A death of Herod in 1 BC leaves more time for these events to unfold after Jesus’ birth.

For his part, Luke specifies that Jesus was “about thirty years old” when he began his ministry (Luke 3.23). If we accept a birth around 2 BC and a crucifixion in the spring of AD 33, this indication becomes more coherent.

The debates surrounding the census of Quirinius

One of the points often discussed concerns the census mentioned by Luke (Luke 2.1-2). Some scholars who favor a birth of Jesus around 2 BC consider the hypothesis of an earlier administrative mission of Quirinius in Syria before his officially attested governorship in AD 6.

This question remains debated among historians. However, the present lack of definitive proof does not allow us to affirm with certainty that Luke was mistaken. The ancient archives concerning Roman administration in this period remain fragmentary, and several elements of the Eastern chronology of the early first century are still debated.

A minority yet defensible hypothesis

The date of 1 BC is today defended by several modern scholars, among them:

  • E. Filmer;
  • Ernest Martin;
  • Andrew Steinmann;
  • Gérard Gertoux, thesis by Gerard Gertoux;
  • as well as other specialists in biblical and ancient chronologies.

Their existence shows that the debate remains open in certain academic circles and that there is no absolute unanimity on this question.

It would therefore be excessive to present the year 4 BC as a definitively established truth. The historical data still allow several plausible reconstructions, among which the hypothesis of Herod’s death in 1 BC appears as a coherent and seriously argued possibility.

VI. Proposed chronological synthesis

From the elements studied above, it appears possible to propose a coherent chronological reconstruction integrating the biblical data, the indications of Flavius Josephus, and astronomical observations.

On this hypothesis, the death of Herod the Great would be placed at the beginning of 1 BC, after the total eclipse of 10 January 1 BC and before the feast of Passover celebrated the following spring.

The proposed chronology can then be summarized as follows:

  • 10 January 1 BC: total lunar eclipse mentioned indirectly by Flavius Josephus;
  • late January 1 BC: death of Herod the Great;
  • spring 1 BC: royal funeral and celebration of Passover;
  • autumn 2 BC: probable birth of Jesus the Messiah;
  • autumn AD 29: baptism of Jesus and beginning of his public ministry (Luke 3.1-23);
  • 1st April AD 33: crucifixion of Jesus the Messiah, at the time of Passover (John 19.14; John 19.31).

This reconstruction presents several advantages:

  • it allows the chronological indications of Matthew and Luke to be kept without having to reinterpret their statements heavily;
  • it maintains the coherence of the prophecy of Daniel’s seventy weeks (Daniel 9.24-27);
  • it offers a more realistic interval between the lunar eclipse and the feast of Passover mentioned by Josephus;
  • it takes into account the real uncertainties concerning ancient methods of reckoning years of reign.

It should nevertheless be recalled that this chronology remains a historical reconstruction. The ancient sources remain fragmentary and several points continue to be debated among scholars. Our aim is therefore not to claim to remove every difficulty once and for all, but to show that a dating to 1 BC remains historically conceivable and deserves to be examined seriously.

Under these conditions, it appears methodologically excessive to present the date of 4 BC as an absolute certainty that necessarily obliges us to reinterpret the biblical indications. The existence of a credible alternative hypothesis invites, on the contrary, greater caution in historical claims about the end of the reign of Herod the Great.

Conclusion

The dating of the death of King Herod the Great to 4 BC, widely adopted since the work of Emil Schürer at the end of the nineteenth century, rests on a coherent chronological reconstruction, but not on absolute historical certainty. This hypothesis depends indeed on several interpretive choices concerning the writings of Flavius Josephus, the identification of a specific lunar eclipse, the reckoning of years of reign, and the chronology of the events surrounding the end of Herod’s reign.

Now, careful examination of the ancient sources shows that several of these elements remain debated. Josephus’ data provide no explicit date according to our modern calendar and leave room for different possible interpretations. Under these conditions, it seems excessive to present the year 4 BC as a definitively established fact admitting no discussion.

The hypothesis of Herod’s death in 1 BC therefore remains historically conceivable. It even presents several advantages:

  • it agrees more naturally with the chronological indications of the Gospels;
  • it respects the statements of Matthew and Luke that Jesus was born during Herod’s lifetime (Matthew 2.1; Luke 1.5);
  • it corresponds better to Luke’s indication that Jesus was “about thirty years old” at the beginning of his ministry (Luke 3.23);
  • it allows a more coherent harmonization with Daniel’s prophetic chronology (Daniel 9.24-27);
  • finally, it seems better compatible with the course of events reported by Flavius Josephus between the lunar eclipse and the feast of Passover.

Our aim is not to claim to resolve definitively a historiographical debate still discussed today, but to recall that several plausible reconstructions exist and that the biblical texts must not be set aside in favor of a historical hypothesis wrongly presented as absolutely certain.

On the contrary, the Gospels show a clear intention to anchor the life of Jesus the Messiah in real history, by mentioning the political and religious authorities of the time (Luke 3.1-2). Luke himself states that he carried out careful research before writing his account (Luke 1.1-4). These elements invite us to consider seriously the historical coherence of the biblical information.

Thus, in the present state of knowledge, a death of Herod the Great in 1 BC remains a credible hypothesis, historically defensible and compatible with all the biblical, chronological and astronomical data we have examined in the course of this study.